Category: museums

masterpieces, skipped: notes from the louvre collection

Isaac Kim
The following article is from our family’s travel blog, arttravel.me. It was written by me.
Plaza del Louvre, seen from the second floor of the Denon wing.

Introduction

Of all the art museums, the Louvre is unquestionably the most prestigious. The name alone commands the power of its history, its reputation, and its massive collection of over 380,000 works of art. It draws millions of tourists to its galleries every year, and with such quintessential works of art like the Mona Lisa, the Venus de Milo, and Liberty Leading the People, who can blame them?

However, a problem arises precisely from the fact that the Louvre houses so many famous artworks. Because of their fame, too many tourists often visit the Louvre solely for these few masterpieces, leaving many more outright ignored. Which, of course, is a travesty. Fame isn’t a great way to appreciate any artwork, and in a place such as the Louvre, with so many beautiful pieces, the somewhat superficial standard of how famous a painting hinders the true experience of understanding and admiring any artwork.

Sadly, I was one of those tourists who judge by reputation alone when I visited the Louvre for the first time, back in 2018. As I found on this visit, the feeling of satisfaction at having seen something famous is nothing compared to the elation and peace that comes when you stop and really admire a beautiful piece. Prestige from fame just doesn’t compare.

So, armed with a (hopefully) deeper knowledge of art history, as well as a renewed standard of viewing art, I have compiled a list of underappreciated masterpieces from the Louvre collection. “Underappreciated” here is a vague term; the pieces shown below attracted barely any tourists when I visited, and attracted virtually no crowds at all. They all possessed a quiet beauty, a beauty that is, when properly appreciated, an unparalleled experience.

Without further ado, let’s begin our journey. The following is a list of the 10 artworks we’ll be examining, all tragically ignored:

  • The Great Sphinx of Tanis. 26th century B.C.(?), granite.
  • The Boy Strangling the Goose. Boëthus, 2nd century B.C., marble (Roman copy).
  • Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata. Giotto, 1295-1300, tempera and gold on panel.
  • The Counterattack of Michelotto da Cotignola at the Battle of San Romano. Paolo Uccello, 1435-1460, tempera with oil on wood.
  • La Belle Jardinière. Raphael, 1507-1508, oil on panel.
  • The Wedding at Cana. Paolo Veronese, 1562-1563, oil on canvas.
  • Christ on the Cross Adored by Two Donors. El Greco, 1590, oil on canvas.
  • Death of the Virgin. Caravaggio, 1604-1606, oil on canvas.
  • The Chancellor Séguier. Charles le Brun, 1660, oil on canvas.
  • The Astronomer. Johannes Vermeer, 1668, oil on canvas.

Let’s start with the very oldest work on our list: the Great Sphinx of Tanis.

The Great Sphinx of Tanis

26th century B.C.(?), granite

Most visitors to the Louvre skim through the antiquities section on their way to see the famous Renaissance collection. They’ll probably take pictures of two marble statues: the Venus de Milo and the Winged Victory of Samothrace.

This is a shame because the Louvre’s collection of Near Eastern and Egyptian antiquities is outstanding. One of the gems in the Egyptian collection is the Great Sphinx of Tanis. Sculpted from pinkish granite, it is in excellent condition considering its age. The sculpture is believed to have been made in the 26th century B.C. That’s over four thousand years ago!

The statue is also remarkable in the message it conveys. The sphinx sits upright and proud; its paws are disproportionately huge, radiating raw power; and is that a Shelleyan smile of pridefulness on its lip? One thing’s for sure: this sphinx is designed to convey dignity and might. Four thousand years later, it still fulfills its goal.

And while you’re in the Egyptian antiquities section, make sure to check out the ancient papyrus manuscripts, which are exquisitely decorated with reed-pen ink, as well as the collection of carved sarcophagi.

The Boy Strangling the Goose

Boëthus, 2nd century B.C., Roman marble copy

Despite the morbid title, the subject of this statue is actually somewhat of a mystery. Is the boy playing with the goose, hugging it affectionately to the chagrin of the bird? Or is he twisting its neck in a scene of jarring violence? The statue doesn’t say, and the enigma continues (though most modern sources refer to it as The Boy Strangling the Goose).

Notice the vivid sense of movement found in this sculpture. The flap of the indignant goose’s wings and the backward lean of the boy both convey motion as if it is a snapshot of a moment. And the chubby belly and limbs of the boy are accurately sculpted to show the features of a small child, as are the feathers of the goose.

Whether it’s a playful or deadly scene, we cannot deny that The Boy Strangling the Goose eloquently expresses motion in stone, seemingly effortlessly capturing a second like a fly in amber. The skill and beauty both show in the carved marble.

Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata

Giotto, 1295-1300, tempera and gold on panel

Medieval art has somewhat of a reputation. Most people just aren’t fans of the flat figures, the lack of perspective, and the (admittedly) ugly depictions of the subjects. As a result, many visitors end up skimming over or totally skipping most of the medieval collections in favor of getting to the Renaissance artworks quicker.

However, I believe that medieval art has its own merit and charm. Two paintings demonstrate this; the first is Giotto’s Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata. Depicting the story of Saint Francis receiving Christ’s wounds in a mystical experience, the gold background and halo combine with the delicately brushed tempera paint to form a scene with its own kind of 2-D beauty.

Giotto also portrayed the emotions of his subjects vividly, in a radical break from the Byzantine iconography of the time. This is just one of the factors that ultimately led to the development of the Renaissance and its humanistic art.

The Counterattack of Michelotto da Cotignola at the Battle of San Romano

Paolo Uccello, 1435-1460, tempera with oil on wood

The second artwork I mentioned is the lengthily titled The Counterattack of Michelotto da Cotignola at the Battle of San Romano, a segment of the overall Battle of San Romano series by Paolo Uccello. It is one-third of the total series.

This painting is revolutionary because of its previously unheard-of use of perspective. While previous artists did use the technique previously, Giotto specifically used it not to improve the narrative or theme of the painting, but rather to improve the realism of the scene—that is, for the sake of depicting depth realistically. According to Uccello’s biography written by Giorgio Vasari in his Lives, Uccello was deeply obsessed with perspective and vanishing points, often poring over a scene for hours into the night to analyze its perspective.

This kind of usage of techniques such as perspective for the sole purpose of making the painting more realistic was pioneered by Uccello. It would later become a hallmark of the Renaissance, and eventually, the Western canon.

La Belle Jardinière

Raphael, 1507-1508, oil on panel

We enter into the Renaissance at the turn of the 16th century, with one of the great Italian masters, Raphael. Of his many works in the collection of the Louvre, my personal favorite is Madonna and Child with Saint John the Baptist, also known as La Belle Jardinière.

The painting has all the hallmarks of a Raphaelesque Renaissance work: the triangular arrangement of the figures, the perfect-looking skin and faces, and the bright fabrics are all undeniably Raphael. This particular subject was not strange to him, either; he had already painted a separate Madonna painting (Madonna of the Goldfinch, Galleria Uffizi), and would go on to paint several more throughout his career.

The painting is strikingly tender and emotional. The Virgin Mary’s loving gaze towards the infant Christ, with Saint John the Baptist looking at Christ as a sort of witness to this bond, creates a format composed of three lines of gazes: Mary to Christ, Christ to Mary, and John to Christ. The tenderness of the painting makes this unique in the Raphael collection.

The Wedding at Cana

Paolo Veronese, 1562-1563, oil on canvas

As the picture above shows, the most crowded room in the entirety of the Louvre is the one where the Mona Lisa is housed; it was behind me when I took this picture. But da Vinci, although he was undoubtedly an artistic genius, didn’t paint the only masterpiece in the room. One only has to look to the opposite wall to see another beautiful artwork, much larger than (and more ignored than) the Mona Lisa by far: Veronese’s The Wedding at Cana.

This giant canvas depicts the Biblical story of the wedding feast at Cana in almost life-size; the style is clearly based on the Venetian school, of which Veronese was a clear master. The artist’s attention to detail shows; the individual faces of every single attendant, apostle, and attendee are painted clearly, their faces showing their emotions in subtle shades.

Of course, bigger doesn’t mean better when it comes to paintings. But when it comes to Veronese, his canvas is both bigger and better than most of the competition.

Christ on the Cross Adored by Two Donors

El Greco, 1590, oil on canvas

From the Italian Renaissance, we move on next to the Baroque and Mannerist movements of the Counter-Reformation. And with El Greco being the poster boy of the Mannerist school of art, the Louvre is bound to have a few paintings by him.

The title, of course, is ironic: even though the two donors specifically paid for the painting with their faces in it, we have no record of who they actually were. Rather, our attentions are drawn immediately to the twisted and tormented figure of Christ on the cross, dramatically lit in the theatrical Baroque style. Also notable are the clouds in the background, built like great arches in the sky.

The theatricality of El Greco’s composition is a hallmark of the Mannerist and Baroque schools. Another example of this intentionally dramatic composition can be found in our next painting.

Death of the Virgin

Caravaggio, 1604-1606, oil on canvas

As El Greco is considered a master of Mannerism, so too is Caravaggio considered a master of the Baroque.

When the Counter-Reformation in the arts was in full swing after the Council of Trent, Caravaggio’s art was in high demand as beautifully demonstrating the theatrical, dramatic lighting of the Baroque style. This dramatic lighting is exemplified in Death of the Virgin: it is as if a spotlight has been pointed at the pallid face, which is thrown into sharp contrast with the shadowed, mourning faces of the apostles.

Something interesting to note: the death of the Virgin Mary is a somewhat common motif in Catholic art, and many artists had chosen this before Caravaggio. In their paintings, the Virgin ascends into heaven still alive, crowned in the glory and majesty of heaven; but in Caravaggio’s painting, the Virgin just looks… dead. This seemingly irreverent take, though, is what elevates this work beyond the clichéd and into the poignantly emotional.

Another interesting thing to note is Caravaggio’s choice to use models from real life as the models for the sacred people in his scenes, including those from lower social strata. When this painting was originally unveiled, it caused quite a stir, as Caravaggio had used the face of a prostitute to model for his Virgin Mary. Perhaps it is this touch of the common, combined with the lighting of the theater, that gives his works a timeless and deeply emotional quality.

The Chancellor Séguier

Charles le Brun, 1660, oil on canvas

In the late 17th century, France was an exceptionally powerful kingdom in its heyday. Under the rule of Louis XIV (whose nickname was “the Sun King” and once said that “I am the state”, showing us his very humble nature), France prospered and, as a result, started to increasingly fund artists more and more.

In his painting of the Chancellor Séguier, Charles le Brun aptly shows the prosperity—almost ranging on decadence—of Louis XVI’s France. The eponymous chancellor sits regally on a pale horse, wearing a fine hat and flowing gold robes; attendants shade him with a parasol and lead the horse. And consider the fact that this was to celebrate the King entering Paris in 1660! One can even draw parallels between our first Great Sphinx of Tanis and the portrayal of royal magnificence. Both convey a central theme: power.

As the painter of the Sun King in all his glory, Charles le Brun demonstrated both technical skill and the ability to communicate themes in deceptively simple-looking works. Even now, his themes still resonate with us.

The Astronomer

Johannes Vermeer, 1668, oil on canvas

We finish off our tour of the underappreciated works of the Louvre with a painting whose quiet solitude especially saddened me, especially since it was executed by one of my favorite artists: Johannes Vermeer’s The Astronomer.

As I have written previously in another blog post, Vermeer was ridiculously good at photorealistic depictions of light and tone in his snapshots of ordinary moments. In fact, some scholars today argue that he executed his paintings with the aid of a kind of camera obscura—he was that good. He only ever painted around 40 works in his entire career; all are considered masterpieces today.

Of these works, The Astronomer has somewhat of a wild history. Ranking at the very top of the Nazi regime’s most wanted list of artworks, it was looted by Herman Göring during the Second World War. Thankfully, it was returned undamaged and now sits quietly in the second floor of the Louvre’s Richelieu wing.

As with many of Vermeer’s other works, the atmosphere comes primarily from light and solitude. The light doesn’t illuminate only the astronomer; it fills the whole room naturally, the way you would expect on a warm afternoon. The astronomer’s solitude, highlighted by the motion of reaching for the celestial globe, only accentuates and increases the effect of this natural light. The nickname “painter of light” goes often to Thomas Kinkade, but I think the title would be far more suitable for Johannes Vermeer.

Conclusion

Too often, people rush to and admire paintings and artworks based only on their provenance and fame. I believe this is a flawed and ultimately unsatisfactory way of looking at art, and I hope this article helps illustrate that. Just because it’s not a Leonardo da Vinci doesn’t mean it’s not a masterpiece.

amsterdam’s treasure trove: notes on the rijksmuseum collection

Isaac Kim
The following article is from our family’s travel blog, arttravel.me. It was written by me.
Front façade of the Rijksmuseum, seen from Stadhouderskade.

Introduction

The Netherlands is known for many things. From its famous tulips and windmills to its never-ending battle with the sea to its long-standing liberalism to its tall people, it’s a country with a rich culture and history. This is especially true in its capital, Amsterdam. Here, tradition combines with innovation: 16th-century canals butt heads with shining glass buildings and former churches house nightclubs. And like the country it sits in, Amsterdam is also known for many things. 

Of these things, perhaps the most beautiful is its artistic tradition. The Netherlands is home to such giants of art history as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, and Vincent Van Gogh. The development of Dutch art took centuries and arguably culminated in the 17th century, during the Dutch Golden Age, when its art was considered to be second to none—as it still is today.

The single largest collection of these Dutch masterpieces is the Rijksmuseum (pronounced Reichs-museum, a fact I didn’t know until my visit). Boasting over a million works of art, of which around 8,000 are on display, the museum is a gigantic treasure trove of art. At museums like these, it’s easy to get overwhelmed, so let’s stick to the highlights of the collection as we travel along a visual history of the Netherlands.

Before reading, note that this article is presented in historical order; in other words, the phases presented below are not in the order that we—and most other visitors—viewed. The route we took and the historic route are both at the very end. Also, note that this isn’t intended to be an exhaustive list and ranking of the Rijksmuseum’s many masterpieces; I will be selecting one or two paintings that are representative of a certain period of Dutch history and discussing them in this article.

Without further ado, let’s dive into the Rijksmuseum collection.

Medieval origins

Memorial Tablet, Master of the Spes Nostra, 1500. Oil on panel.

The story of truly Dutch art begins in the 15th century when an exciting advancement in the arts was spreading rapidly throughout Europe: oil paint. Previously, the International Gothic style, elegant but artificially so, had dominated the Low Countries and Northern Europe. But with oil paints, painters could suddenly add much more detail and nuance to their subjects with translucent, shimmering layers.

Walking through the Rijksmuseum’s medieval art section, which is on the first floor, viewers can see a noticeable improvement in quality post-1400s. One painting that exemplifies this improvement is the Master of the Spes Nostra’s Memorial Tablet, executed in 1500 and exhibiting a fine control of oil painting. From this point on, Dutch art started to move towards what would become its hallmarks: finely executed details, nearly photorealistic depictions, and controlled brushwork.

Independence and Wars of Religion

Fishing for Souls, Hendrick Avercamp, 1608. Oil on oak.
Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Munster, Bartholomeus van der Helst, 1648. Oil on canvas.

With the advent of new technologies like oil painting came the Northern Renaissance, which came from Italy to the Low Countries at the advent of the 16th century. Soon, another phenomenon found its way to Northern Europe: the Protestant Reformation.

The most devastating of the European Wars of Religion, the 30 Years War, happened to coincide with the Dutch movement for independence from the Spanish Empire, the much older 80 Years War. Artistic depictions and allegories of both wars can be seen in the Rijksmuseum collection: an exemplary instance of religious allegory in the time of religious war can be found in Fishing for Souls, by Hendrick Avercamp. Here, Protestants and Catholics alike fish for souls in the great river; the subject matter is unmistakably Protestant-favored.

A second painting that showcases Dutch life at the end of the 80 Years War is Bartholomeus van der Helst’s Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Munster, a mouthful of a name that celebrates the treaty that ended the war between Spain and the Netherlands.

The Dutch Golden Age

The Night Watch, Rembrandt, 1642. Oil on canvas.
Syndics of the Drapers’ Guild, Rembrandt, 1662. Oil on canvas.
The Milkmaid, Johannes Vermeer, 1657-58. Oil on canvas.

Coming to the central hall of the Rijksmuseum, we encountered the highlights of the museum collection: the hall was lined with dozens of Dutch Golden Age masterpieces, with the names of art giants like Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, and Frans Hals proudly labeling the masterworks. No wonder; even now, centuries removed from their making, seeing a masterpiece by Rembrandt or Vermeer can become almost a spiritual experience for the viewer. Even now, they still hold an ethereal power.

As the Dutch prospered through their empire supported by the V.O.C., the demand for art grew exponentially in tandem with the growing middle class. From this demand grew two major categories of commissions: group portraiture and still life. The paintings shown above are two examples of these.

Although Rembrandt’s The Night Watch is the most famous example of group portraiture in the Rijksmuseum (and one of the most famous examples of group portraiture ever), it is currently under restoration, with a great metal bar obscuring much of the painting. However, there is another example of Rembrandt’s technique of group painting, one that I would argue rivals The Night Watch, though it’s not as famous. It is Syndics of the Drapers’ Guild.

In his large group portraits, Rembrandt employed a deceptively simple technique that brought them to life, the addition of movement. In all of his group portraits, the sense of motion is present; for example, in The Night Watch the leader of the group motions with his hand, and in Syndics of the Drapers’ Guild, all of the members of the guild (except for the leader) glance towards the viewer, while a single man either sits up from or sits down on a chair, almost as if we have walked into a private meeting. This movement breathes life into the composition, and in turn, brings the subjects to a more human level. For this technique, Rembrandt became highly sought after for his skills in group paintings.

The other major genre of Dutch Golden Age art well-known to most of us today is still life. And of course, the master of Dutch still life is Johannes Vermeer, an artist whose paintings are so highly regarded for their realism that some have suggested in the present day that he used a camera to paint his scenes. Vermeer’s most famous painting in the Rijksmuseum is The Milkmaid. From the exquisitely painted lighting that reflects beautifully on the rich blue dress of the eponymous milkmaid to the detailed stream of milk, this snapshot of a passing moment is Vermeer’s most beautiful.

Slavery and the V.O.C.

Model of a V.O.C. ship.

The wealth of the Netherlands that led to the masterpieces of the Dutch Golden Age, of course, is intrinsically tied to the colonialism of the Dutch Empire, exhibited most notably in the V.O.C.’s expansion of trade interests all over the world.

Confronting this dark history, the Rijksmuseum has presented artistic depictions of the V.O.C. and colonialism in an elegant, eloquent way. This understandably painful and embarrassing history has nevertheless been presented in a fascinating way. Embarrassing history such as this is still necessary to teach, and the Rijksmuseum, I think, sets a good precedent.

Romanticism, Impressionism, and the modern-day

Self-portrait, Vincent van Gogh, 1887. Oil on canvas.

As the art world moved on to the 19th century, the dominant styles shifted from Baroque to Rococo to Romanticism to Realism to Impressionism. The Rijksmuseum only has one painting by one of the most famous Impressionist artists ever, Vincent van Gogh; it remains very popular in the modern wing.

The Impressionist style, the capturing of the “impression” of a scene, is of course a far cry from the realistic, allegorically driven paintings of the Dutch Golden Age. But it’s also important to acknowledge the similarities between the two styles. Both of them sought to encapsulate the essence of light and tone in fleeting moments; both are intrinsically linked to each other, just as how each and every painting of the Rijksmuseum is connected in a linear pathway of the history of art.

And with this concludes our quick walkthrough of the Rijksmuseum. In its beautiful collection, art history becomes a path, twisting and turning through stone and paint. It is a must-see in Amsterdam.

The Rijksmuseum.
This post is based on our visit to the Rijksmuseum on July 10th, 2023.

milan’s marble face: notes on the duomo

Isaac Kim
The Milan Duomo, seen from the Piazza del Duomo.

Over 8 million tourists visited Milan in the year 2019; the number is projected to increase amidst a pan-European tourism boom. What did they come to see? Certainly, the northern Italian city has many attractions that appeal to a great number of sightseers, including Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper, the historic Teatro alla Scala, and the beautiful Sforzesco Castle. But there’s one place that almost all of these tourists will certainly see: Milan’s cathedral, the Duomo.

And no wonder: the Duomo took over 600 years to build. To put that in another way, the amount of time it took to build the Duomo is more than the amount of time the Roman Empire (going by the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, 476 AD) existed. The cathedral is no joke.

But of course, the length of construction time isn’t the only way to measure a building’s worth. So what makes the Duomo special? This is the question we sought to answer when we visited the cathedral and one that we held in our heads for most of our visit. Just what is it about the Duomo that makes it so irresistible?

Exterior

The Duomo’s façade from close up.

Visiting the cathedral, the first thing that immediately caught our attention was, obviously, the front façade. Built completely of white marble, it is a masterpiece of Gothic architecture and design. Note the flat, pyramidal composition of the façade, its richly carved spires culminating at the apex and combining with the main body to form a visually pleasing pentagonal shape. Intricately decorated “head to toe” with carved marble figures and columns, the front face of the Duomo is probably one of the most beautiful parts of the entire cathedral.

Before we even stepped foot into the cathedral proper, one of the biggest reasons for the Duomo’s popularity showed itself to us: its sheer size. Counting by square area and volume, the Duomo is the third-largest church building in the world. The façade shows this quite bluntly; the flatness of the marble face makes for a focal point visible from anywhere in the Piazza del Duomo. Seeing the whole building clearly requires a view from the center of the Piazza itself. Otherwise, the building just doesn’t fit into the range of the eye.

This factor of fame, size, was soon to become much clearer in the interior of the Duomo.

Interior

Duomo, central nave.
Alternate view of the naves, seen from the transept.

Entering through the front of the cathedral, we were immediately overwhelmed by the sheer volume of the space. Gigantic stone pillars stretched almost impossibly high, supporting a rib-vault ceiling and spreading the weight of the roof along the five naves. The size of the human figures next to the columns in the bottom picture gives a vague sense of perspective to the viewer. It’s hard to imagine just how much space the cathedral takes up until you actually go inside.

From the sheer size of the columns, taller and thicker than trees, we can get a grip on the challenge of simply holding the roof up, much less keeping the walls standing, sculpting the hundreds of intricate details, and maintaining such a vast space. The very existence of a building as vast as this, factoring in construction time, restoration, and maintenance, is truly remarkable.

List of Milan’s archbishops. The Duomo’s first archbishop was Antonio da Saluzzo (listed as “Antonio Saluzzese”), number 101 on the list.

Walking down the nave towards the apse, we were encountered by gigantic stained-glass windows and a large number of side altars. One of the most incredible testaments to the sheer length of time it took to build the Duomo is towards the right of the nave; a marble panel on the wall lists all the archbishops of the city of Milan, ever. The archbishops of the present-day cathedral start around halfway down. It really speaks to the age of Milan’s Christian community, and to the age of the Duomo.

Side chapel in the Duomo.

For me, the most beautiful side chapel was the one pictured above, with what looks to be a statue of Saint Ambrose encased in a wonderfully baroque sculpture. The placard above him, “Ego sum pastor bonus”, is a quotation from the Bible, and is Latin for “I am the good shepherd”. Surrounded by beautiful stained-glass windows, this chapel is right next to the exit from the roof terraces, and I’d recommend stopping to admire it for a moment or two.

These kinds of side chapels are scattered across the sides of the cathedral, specifically next to the rightmost and leftmost naves. Their styles range from the Medieval to the Baroque, similar to Toledo Cathedral. Often, they include statues carved of marble and stone.

St. Bartholomew Skinned, by Marco d’Agrate.

Of course, one of the most famous sculptures in the Duomo is Marco d’Agrate’s “St. Bartholomew Skinned”. The stone statue features the eponymous St. Bartholomew, who was, according to tradition, skinned alive. The saint, somewhat morbidly, wears the folds of his own skin like a robe; the extremely accurate muscular structure is fully displayed. However morbid it may be, we had to admit that the sculpture was an impressively accurate and realistic work.

In a human touch, the sculptor proudly wrote the words “I was not made by Praxiteles (a famous Greek sculptor of antiquity) but by Marco d’Agrate” on the statue’s pedestal. And can we blame him?

Apse windows. Due to construction, only 2 of 3 are pictured.
A closer look at one of the apse windows.

Moving towards the back of the Duomo, the highlight of the apse is undoubtedly the three gigantic stained-glass windows. Featuring elaborate stone tracery, these windows are remarkable in both their sheer size and in the ridiculous amount of detail. Taking a closer look at the windows, we could see row after row of intricately detailed scenes in stained glass, portrayed in incredibly vibrant colors and life-like characters. The rows of rectangles featuring Biblical scenes almost feel like a comic strip; just looking at it fills visitors with awe and respect.

And while at the apse, we made sure to check out the red light towards the top that highlights the container that holds the Holy Nail, the purported nail that pierced Christ on the cross; every year, the archbishop takes the Holy Nail down to ground level, where it is displayed for 40 hours before being taken back to the top of the cathedral. Certainly an interesting tradition.

Roof terraces

View from the Duomo roof terraces.
Detail of flying buttresses, seen from roof terraces. Note the intricate stone carving.

Our visit to the Duomo, though, wasn’t complete without a visit to the roof terraces. Riding an elevator to the very top, we slowly made our way under the flying buttresses. The intricately carved stone, complete with arches, trefoils, statues of saints, and Gothic spires, makes the terraces a ridiculously beautiful space. The architectural beauty combines with commanding views of Milan, complete with a great view of the Piazza del Duomo in the front.

Row after row of trefoiled arches form the flying buttresses that support the great walls of the Duomo. They are decorated not only with geometric motifs but also with statues of saints grouped together in towering spires.

View of the Piazza Duomo from the roof terraces.
View of the Museo Duomo and Palazzo Reale from the roof terraces. The belfry of San Gottardo in Corte is visible towards the far left.

The full beauty of the view of the terraces cannot be understated, even though it started to pour rain the moment we went to the top. I would highly recommend at least a quick view of the terraces; it’s really a view you can’t miss. Any visit to the Duomo isn’t complete without a visit to the top.

Museo Duomo

Combined with properly admiring the exterior and interior of the cathedral, a visit to the terraces completes the visit to the Duomo proper. However, we made sure to also check out the Museo Duomo, which is right next to the cathedral, towards the right transept exit. 

I would highly recommend at least quickly skimming through the museum’s collections. It includes many insightful details about the full history of the Duomo, as well as many samples of art that used to be in the cathedral; fans of stained-glass, wood or stone sculpture, or just shiny things in general will enjoy the experience. Below is a small collection of some of the highlights of the museum:

Stained-glass depiction of an angel, Museo Duomo.
Gilt silver cross, Museo Duomo.
Reproduction of the Statue of the Virgin Mary on top of the Duomo, Museo Duomo.
Another stained-glass depiction of an angel, Museo Duomo.
1/20 wooden model of the Duomo, Museo Duomo.

Concluding thoughts

In a city as historically and culturally rich as Milan, the unquestioned highlight is the cathedral: in our case, the Duomo. Certainly, it is a triumph of Gothic architecture, from the gigantic stained-glass windows to the beautiful roof terrace spires.

We sought to answer the question of what makes the Duomo so special and irresistible to people all around the world. From my observation based on my visit, I could gather three reasons: history (specifically the long building time), architectural and aesthetic beauty, and sheer size.

Such a masterpiece of Western civilization should certainly be admired to its very fullest; I would highly recommend a thorough visit here if ever going to Milan. It’s definitely worth the 600-year wait.

This article is based on our visit to the Milan Duomo on June 30th, 2023.

where cultures collide: notes on toledo cathedral

Isaac Kim
The following article is from our family’s travel blog, arttravel.me. It was written by me.

Introduction

Before Philip III moved the capital of Spain to Madrid in 1561, the ancient city of Toledo, with its highly fortified riverside location and sturdy stone walls, was the original capital city of the Spanish Empire. Small wonder, then, that it boasts one of the greatest cathedrals in the world, the Primatial Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo (Catedral Primada Santa María de Toledo), also known as Toledo Cathedral.

Toledo Cathedral, seen from Plaza del Ayuntamiento.
Toledo Cathedral, seen from Plaza del Ayuntamiento.

Built for more than 250 years, the cathedral is a shining example of Spanish High Gothic architecture, although it incorporates aspects of the Baroque, Rococo, and Mudéjar styles as well. Today, Toledo Cathedral’s beauty and imposing grandeur continue to draw tens of thousands of tourists to the city, centuries after its stones were laid.

So what makes Toledo Cathedral so special, and how does it continue to attract and inspire people hundreds of years later?

Toledo

To properly understand Toledo Cathedral, we first have to look at the city of Toledo itself.

Toledo, seen from the Mirador Toledo.

As seen by the image above, Toledo sits on a hill facing the Tagus River, easily defensible by walls. This naturally advantageous position for a city was recorded as far back as ancient Rome; the Roman historian Livy writes of Toledo as “a small city, but fortified by location” as early as the first century AD. It is not surprising, therefore, that Toledo first served as the capital city of the Visigothic Kingdom from 542 to 725 AD, a period of almost 200 years; nor is it surprising that Holy Roman Emperor Charles V centered his court on Toledo. Indeed, Toledo was Spain’s de facto capital city until Philip III moved the capital to Madrid due to a lack of space.

As the greatness of the city grew throughout the years, the need for a grand cathedral arose. It’s important to remember that cathedrals in Europe are designed to be the focal points of their cities; they’re designed specifically to instill awe and grandeur in the viewers. So, considering both the illustrious history of the city and the need for grandiosity in cathedrals, the grandeur of Toledo Cathedral comes as less of a surprise.

Exterior

Front façade of Toledo Cathedral, seen from Plaza del Ayuntamiento.

Toledo Cathedral is often called the crowning glory of Spanish High Gothic architecture, and this title clearly shows in the exterior of the building, specifically in the front façade.

To start, the three-portal design of the front (1) is a very clearly Gothic form of cathedral architecture. The cathedrals of Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens, Rouen, and Reims, to name just a few, all have three portals. The trefoil designs of the arches (2), as well as the stone tracery of the arches, both are descended from the Gothic style. And of course, the classic Catholic iconography of carved images of Christ and statues of the saints in niches (3) speaks to the cathedral’s purpose.

On the other hand, some elements of the cathedral’s exterior are influenced by the Mudéjar style, which utilizes Islamic-derived elements in Iberian architecture. For example, the elaborately carved stone patterned railing on the top of the façade (4) is in the mudéjar style, as is the brickwork of the left belfry (5). Overall, however, the mudéjar style does not become immediately apparent from the front.

On the topic of the belfry, one of the more unusual aspects of Toledo Cathedral is its seemingly mismatched and asymmetrical towers. The taller tower on the left is a bell tower (6), but the tower on the right is a chapel (7) (whose octagonal dome was designed by Jorge Manuel Theotocópuli, son of the famous painter El Greco), used specifically to house a worship place for the Mozarabic rites. These rites were once used throughout the Iberian peninsula and were kept alive by the Christian communities under Muslim rule in Al-Andalusia, or the Mozarabs. The Mozarabic rite is still kept alive today, especially in Toledo, where the rite is still celebrated in the chapel to this day.

From the grand and elaborate front façade, we come into the interior of the cathedral itself.

Interior

Interior of Toledo Cathedral, right side aisle, nave.

The nave of Toledo Cathedral is a quintessential example of High Gothic architecture. From the colossal columns supporting the rib vaults to the stained glass windows and the gigantic rose window, the front of the cathedral is almost entirely in the Gothic style. Here, the pointed shape of the Gothic arch is prevalent, as is the cross shape of the rib vault. The front is dark, almost gloomy, lit by artificial lights and sunlight streaming through the stained glass.

Wall painting of St. Christopher carrying the infant Christ, on the side of the transept entrance.

As we move forward from the side aisle of the nave to the side of the transept entrance, an unexpectedly large wall painting is shown of a bearded man carrying a child. The subject of the painting is also large within the settings of the painting; his “staff” is a palm tree. This is St. Christopher; legend has it that he carried the (miraculously heavy) infant Christ across a river, curing him of his pride and causing him to devote the rest of his life to Christianity.

Choir of Toledo Cathedral.

Near the transept is the choir space, where the choir sings during services. The two gigantic organs are immediately visible, their pipes sticking out like cannons; the one on the left (1) is in the ornate Baroque style, while the one on the right (2) is in the more recent and austere Neoclassical style. The choir therefore already features a convergence of styles, blended smoothly so that all methods are encased in the overall “look” of the cathedral.

But how would the organ players get to the organs themselves, which are far above the rest of the choir? The answer lies in the back panels behind the columns; look closely at the panels behind the stairs, and you’ll see that they are in fact secret doors (4), which lead directly to the seats where the organists would play their hymnals.

The inner space is surrounded by three series of arches; this is where the choir sits, underneath the rows of statues of Biblical patriarchs and saints encased in individual niches. And of course, the gigantic lectern (3), where the conductor read from the gargantuan sheet music, is in the very center of the space itself. And make sure not to miss the statue of the Virgin Mary at the front of the gates, facing the apse and chancel.

Altarpiece of Toledo Cathedral.

Behind iron bars, the chancel contains one of the most elaborate and dazzling altarpieces of any Gothic cathedral. Consisting of six golden tiers containing colorful scenes from the life and death of Jesus, this altarpiece is simply magnificent. Avid-eyed visitors can spot some iconic allegories and stories here; starting slightly left of center with the Annunciation (1), or the visitation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary; then moving to the top-center with the Nativity (2); then moving immediately to the Passion with the Last Supper (3) and Crucifixion (4). Finally, the story concludes with the continuation of the message of the Gospels, showing the Holy Spirit descending on the Apostles (5). Golden and polychromatic, this altarpiece is a beautiful triumph of medieval art—and consider also the fact that all of these sculptures are life-sized. Impressive indeed!

Take a close look at the painting in the bottom-right corner (6), and you’ll notice that it has hinges. That’s because it’s another secret doorway, which leads to none other than the center of the altar, the monstrance (7).

Of course, from way down below at ground level, the figures look miniature and the monstrance looks very small. But seeing the monstrance at eye level, we can see that it is, in fact, a gilt-silver tower. A closer look can be achieved by going to a separate room, where the original monstrance (the one in the altarpiece is a replica) is in a display case.

The monstrance of Toledo Cathedral.

Supported by angels and towering above, it truly looks like the giant achievement that it is.

But what is a monstrance? In short, it is the vessel in which the Eucharistic host (which is the sacramental bread you see in Communion services) is placed; in Toledo’s case, the host is placed within the (comparatively) tiny circular holder in the center of the monstrance. It truly can be called the centerpiece of the centerpiece.

El Transperente, towards the back of the apse.
The hole in the ceiling illuminates El Transperente with natural light.

Moving on, the altarpiece behind the gilded wooden sculptures is equally as impressive. Known as El Transparente, this gigantic altarpiece is a true triumph, this time of the Baroque style. In a fantastic dreamscape cut from marble, angels and cherubim fly wildly through gilded shafts of light coming from the Eucharistic host, in a style perhaps influenced by Bernini’s famous Throne of Saint Peter in the Vatican, while the Virgin and child sit humbly at the bottom.

The golden rays emanate from none other than the previously mentioned monstrance, where the Eucharistic host sits as if the body of Christ itself radiates shining light. 

The real genius of El Transparente, however, lies in the way the sculptor designed natural light to hit the altar. In a dark cathedral such as this, especially in the very back of the church, where it’s hard for light to hit the altar, the illumination of the altar proves to be difficult. However, in a stroke of genius, the sculptor found the solution to lighting the piece by cutting a hole into the ceiling. This striking and unusual detail ends up working out very well: the light that hits this baroque masterpiece is completely natural. And, when the time of day and year are just right, the light is perfectly angled so that a single beam hits the Eucharistic host in the very center of the altar.

Annexes and cloisters

Towards the left of Toledo Cathedral, the entrance to the annexes are visible. Here, precious works of art by masters such as El Greco, Titian, Raphael, Caravaggio, and (in an unusually religious painting) Goya, are all on display. The most notable of these masterpieces, of course, is El Greco’s The Disrobing of Christ.

The Disrobing of Christ by El Greco, on display in the annex rooms.

Notice the striking (and at the time controversial) composition of the painting. Instead of Christ being at the very top of the painting, he is instead on the ground, surrounded by the people about to execute him. The drawn-out and elongated anatomy of the figures, especially visible in the man carving the cross and the figure of Jesus himself, is also very striking, especially as you get closer to the painting. Finally, the decision to only make Christ’s eyes glimmer white as he turns his face to heaven is deeply moving.

Before going to the cloisters, I would recommend taking some time to admire the other masterpieces that are on display in the annex rooms, which include Titian’s Portrait of Pope Paul III, Raphael’s The Virgin of the Veil, Caravaggio’s Saint John the Baptist, and Goya’s The Arrest of Christ, an unusual subject matter for the artist, as mentioned above.

Concluding the visit to Toledo Cathedral, make sure to swing by the cloisters before you leave. Here, the herbal scent and cool shade of the arches make for a lovely atmosphere, and the view of the belfry isn’t bad, either. When we arrived, hardly any tourists were milling about the cloisters, so it makes for a nice place to rest for a minute if you don’t mind the suffocating heat.

View of Toledo Cathedral’s belfry from the cloisters.

Concluding thoughts

Toledo Cathedral is unquestionably a must-see for any visitors to the city. From its gorgeous exterior to its jaw-dropping interior, it speaks as a convergence of several different artistic and architectural styles. The influence left by the Moors, the Mozarabs, and the Spanish is carved indelibly in rock, the product of centuries worth of progress and innovation.

As a prime example of cultural synthesis, the cathedral really is an unquestionably unique and beautiful location. Where cultures collide, here beauty has sprung.

This article is based on our visit to Toledo Cathedral on June 23rd, 2023.